The Central Nervous System: Structure and Functions

The Central Nervous System: Structure and Functions Hayley Sterling The structure of: The Central Nervous System The brain and spinal cord make up the Central Nervous System (CNS). The term central is used because it assimilates information from the whole body and coordinates activities across the entire organism. The brain is enclosed in and protected by the skull (cranial cavity). From the back of the brain, the spinal cord flows down, passing through the spinal canal and stopping down in the lumbar region. The brain and the spinal cord are protected by a triple layered membrane, this is known as the meninges. Sensory, connector and motor neurones. Like all living organisms, humans can respond to their environment. There are two control systems that work together to accomplish this the nervous system and the hormonal (endocrine) system. Breathing, production of digestive enzymes, memory and intelligence are examples of things controlled by the human nervous system. The nervous system is composed of nerve cells, known as neurones.       The details of each of the neurones can be seen in the images above. Each neurone has similarities and differences when it comes to length of fibres, location and their function. The Sensory neurone has long dendrites and short axons, is located within the cell body (dendrites outside of the cell body) and the cell body is located within the dorsal root ganglion. The function of the sensory neurone is to conduct impulse to the spinal cord. The interneuron has short dendrites and has either a short or long axon. It is located entirely within the spinal cord (central nervous system). Its function is to interconnect the sensory neuron with the motor neuron. The motor neuron has short dendrites and long axons. The dendrites and cell body are located within the spinal cord, whereas the axon is outside of the spinal cord. Its function is to conduct an impulse to the effector (gland or muscle). Axons and Dendrites the opposites of each other. Axons take information away from the cell body and Dendrites bring information to it. Axons have a smooth surface, Dendrites have a rough one. Only usually 1 Axon per cell, multiple Dendrites per cell. Axons have no Ribosomes, and Dendrites do. Axons can have Myelin insulation, Dendrites do not. Axons branch far away from the cell body, Dendrite branch closely to the cell. How nerve impulses are transmitted The ultimate function of nerve cells (neurones) is to transmit signal from sense organs, such as the eyes and skin, to the central nervous system then from the CNS to the effector organs. Neurones are made up from a cell body, from here small projections protrude, these are called dendrites. There is one lengthened dendrite called an axon, the axon is usually protected in an electro-insulating compound known as myelin this will speed up the signals. The end of the axon, spreads into may branches, this means that the signals can be delivered to multiple target cells at once. This can be seen in the image below: An electrical current carries the neuron, which then transmits the signal. The role of chemical transmitters in enabling impulses to cross synapses Chemical Synapse. A fluid filled space known as a synaptic cleft separates two membranes. These are referred to as pre and post synaptic membranes. The above image shows the pre and post synaptic membranes. An electrical impulse comes from the axon of the pre-synaptic membrane. This in turn causes the nerve-ending of the neuron to release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. The chemicals proceed to diffuse in the synaptic cleft, before binding with receptor molecules on the next neuron.   They receptor molecules of this neuron will only bind with the specific chemicals given from the first neuron. This will then stimulate the next neuron to replicate the process. Voluntary and reflex actions Voluntary actions require a message from the brain, before being able to carry it out. For this reason, they are slower than a reflex action. Most actions carried out by our body are voluntary actions, for example choosing to walk in a certain direct to avoid danger or obstacles. Reflex actions are in-voluntary and do not require thought in order to be processed. Reflex actions occur in response to a stimulus, for example when touching a hot surface, we automatically react by removing contact from the surface, before our brain actually recognises that the surface is hot. The role of the autonomic nervous system The inside of the body is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Information is transported about the inside of the body to the central nervous system. It also controls internal organs such as our heart, stomach and liver etc. Homeostasis is where the bodys internal environment is maintained safely. This is done through balancing levels of temperature, oxygen in the blood, blood sugar and salt concentration. The autonomic nervous system is instrumental in ensuring homeostasis occurs in the body. Another vital role of the autonomic nervous system is displaying physical signs of our emotional expressions. An example of this is when were emotionally excited our heart rate may increase, blood pressure may rise, and our mouth may become dry. The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions. The emergency system formally known as the Sympathetic division and the housekeeping division known as the parasympathetic division. The parasympathetic divisions action is usually always the opposite of the Sympathetic division. The sympathetic division prepares our body to give out energy in order to protect itself from the effects of injury. The parasympathetic division will complete actions such as reducing heart rate and reduce blood pressure where necessary. Effects on transmission of nerve impulses from caffeine Caffeine is known as a stimulant, caffeine can be found in coffee, cola, energy drinks, cannabis and amphetamines. Caffeine/stimulants increases the rate of transmissions of signals from one cell to another. This will increase our alertness, as well as our breathing and heart rate. Lon term affects include us producing highs but these can also be followed by extreme lows. Extreme lows can progress further and lead to depression. References Aviva.co.uk. (2017). Medical Encyclopedia Function: Voluntary and Involuntary Responses Aviva. [online] Available at: http://www.aviva.co.uk/health-insurance/home-of-health/medical-centre/medical-encyclopedia/entry/function-voluntary-and-involuntary-responses/ [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Bbc.co.uk. (2017). BBC GCSE Bitesize: How synapses work Higher. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_pre_2011/brain_mind/informationrev2.shtml [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Bbc.co.uk. (2017). BBC GCSE Bitesize: Stimulants, sedatives and painkillers. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/edexcel_pre_2011/health/drugsandhealthrev4.shtml [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Biologymad.com. (2017). Nervous System Intro. [online] Available at: http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/nervoussystemintro.htm [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Boundless. (2017). Synaptic Transmission. [online] Available at: https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-nervous-system-35/how-neurons-communicate-200/synaptic-transmission-763-11996/ [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Indiana.edu. (2017). AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. [online] Available at: http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/ans.htm [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Newman, T. (2017). Central Nervous System: Structure, Functions and Diseases. [online] Medical News Today. Available at: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/307076.php [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Science.education.nih.gov. (2017). The Brain-Lesson 3-Drugs Change the Way Neurons Communicate (Page 1 of 2). [online] Available at: https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/addiction/guide/lesson3-1.html [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Steane, R. (2017). Voluntary and reflex actions. [online] Biotopics.co.uk. Available at: http://www.biotopics.co.uk/newgcse/voluntaryReflex.html [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. The Student Room. (2017). Revision:Nerve impulse transmission The Student Room. [online] Available at: https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/wiki/Revision:Nerve_impulse_transmission [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Marketing Strategies of Asda: An Analysis Marketing Strategies of Asda: An Analysis Introduction: Marketing Strategy defines objectives and describes the methods youre going to make happy customers in your target markets. It does not have to be written down but it is easier to communicate to outsiders if there is a plan, strategy. What is a Marketing strategy? The broad approach the company intends to implement in the long term to achieve its objectives. A medium to long term plan for achieving a firms marketing objectives. The means or game plan by which marketing objectives will be achieved. Concerns markets, positioning, direction of development and competitive advantage. A plan for future marketing activity. What should have to be in marketing strategies? Marketing strategy should be: Be part of the all strategies of the company. Be a clear understanding of the markets to implies the strategy. Market should be analysis first. Be based on the companys strengths. Checked the opportunities by strengths. Analysis the companys weaknesses. Act in response to threats. Be incorporated and logical. Be carefully checked out the all strategies. MOST: Components of the Strategies Mission Objectives Strategy (overall plans) Tactics short term responses to opportunities or threats Effectives on strategies: Business objectives The firms resources The firms strengths Market conditions Opportunities in the market Competition and market structure Stages in the development of marketing strategy: Objectives should have to be clear. Marketing audit should be done before implemented. Arrange the SWOT analysis Define marketing objectives Develop marketing strategies Implement marketing plans Review and realize the outcomes Prepare the next plan RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Objectives of research: I will have set objectives for my research, to outline what it is that I want to gain from my research. These objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. Marketing is a key area of the business to help it to develop and grow (Marketing is therefore a tool for any business). The purpose and objectives of my research is to find out why companies spend a significant on their marketing strategy and what strategies they adopt to compete with their competitors. There are two types of research objectives: General Objectives: A General Objective is a brief outline of what the researcher expects to achieve by carrying out his research For example: How the GREEN is helping to the ASDA business? How and Why ASDA spending more on their marketing? why the grocery retailers are giving the preference to get their CASH CARRY from ASDA stores? Why the ASDA has only BIG STORES? How the GEORGE is getting more clothing customers on their prices? How ASDA getting more customers from GEORGE? How ASDA marketing for GEORGE? Specific Objectives: A specific objective is where it is possible to breakdown the general objectives into smaller, logically connected parts. How ASDA can seek more business from its existing customers by aiming to grow its market share with the products that it already in its portfolio. How ASDA can seek expansion by taking its traditional product range into new markets. How ASDA can persuade existing customers that they should buy different products or services a sort of product line extension. How ASDA marketing researchers could explore the needs of customers for the products that are contemplated for the extended collection. Opportunity Meeting Objective: How can ASDA improve their existing and more offers to customers by their (the product/service, the delivery, the guarantees, the service support etc)? How can ASDA segment the market so that they can better satisfy their all customers needs? What are the best routes to ASDA marketing because they already got and knows the marketing routes? How can ASDA convince people to buy their products when they are being tempted in other directions? How can ASDA increase their sales by marketing in other territories? What changes for the packaging of the product ASDA will do to sell them? LITERATURE REVIEW The marketing mix: Marketing strategies generally fall in to following four controllable categories. Product Price Place Promotion The four Ps are the parameters that the marketing manager can control, subject to the internal and external constraints of marketing environment. The goal is to make decisions that centre the four Ps on the customers in the target market in order to create perceived value and generate a positive response. Product Contribution: The term product refers to tangible, physical products as well as services. Here are some examples of the product and how to contribute them in the marketing strategy. Brand name Functionality Styling Quality Safety Packaging Repairs and support Warranty Accessories and services Price Contribution: Some specification in price contributions is Pricing strategy (skim, penetration, etc.) Suggested retail price Volume discounts and wholesale pricing Cash and early payment discount Seasonal pricing Bundling Price flexibility Price discrimination Place Contribution: Place is about getting the products to the customers e.g. Distribution channels Market coverage (inclusive, selective, or exclusive distribution) Inventory management Warehousing Place centres Order processing Transportation Reverse logistics Promotion contribution: In the marketing mix, promotion represents the various aspects of marketing strategies that is the strategy of information about the product with the goal of generating a positive customer response. Promotional strategy (push, pull. etc) Advertising Personal selling sales force Sales promotions Public relations publicity Marketing strategies budget Every marketing strategy whenever it going to makes it will be implemented by the marketing mix and that strategy will be analysed first to fit in the marketing mix. Product Life Cycle Introduction Stage At the Introduction (or development) step market size and growth is slight. It is possible that extensive research and improvement costs have been incurred to get the product to this stage. In addition, marketing costs may be more in order to test the market, experience launch promotion and set up distribution channels. It is quite unexpected that companies will make profits on products at the Introduction Stage. Because that time company will just invest on their product that should not be the time for enough profit. Growth Stage The Growth Stage is characterized by rapid growth in sales and profits. Profits arise due to an increase in output (economies of scale) and possibly better prices. At this stage, it is cheaper for businesses to invest in increasing their market share as well as enjoying the overall growth of the market Maturity Stage The Maturity Stage is, perhaps, the most common and peek of product stage for all markets. It is in this stage that competition is most intense as companies fight to maintain their market share. Here, both marketing and finance become key activities. Marketing spend has to be monitored carefully, since any significant moves are likely to be copied by competitors. The Maturity Stage is the time when most profit is earned by the market as a whole. Any expenditure is to be restricted. Decline Stage In the Decline Stage, the market is shrinking, reducing the overall amount of profit that can be shared amongst the lasting competitors. At this stage, great care has to be taken to manage the product carefully. It may be possible to take out some production cost, to transfer production to a cheaper facility, sell the product into other, cheaper markets. SWOT ANALYSIS before Marketing: SWOT analysis is an important tool for auditing the overall marketing strategic position of a business and its environment. Because businesses dont want to waste their money and resources on the fake planning for their business. SWOT is the internal and external view of the company what theyve got, what they have to do to survive in the markets, what they can do, what they are loosing. Once key strategic issues have been identified, they feed into business objectives, particularly marketing objectives. SWOT analysis is very popular tool in business for marketing strategies because it is quick and easy way to analyze the company. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors. For example, strength could be your specialist in marketing capability. A weakness could be the required for the new marker for new products which helps you to get the big market share. Opportunities and threats are external factors. For example, an opportunity could be a developing distribution channel, marketing for the products such as the Internet, or changing consumer lifestyles that Will be easy to by the things online and that would be the extra sale of the company and potentially increase demand for a companys products. A threat could be a new competitor in an important existing market or a technological change that makes existing products potentially obsolete ANSOFF MATRIX: The output from the ANSOFF product/market MATRIX is a series of suggested growth marketing strategies that set the direction for the business strategy. From the ANSOFF matrix I am getting two growth strategies which will help us for our marketing analysis to do the marketing because we are not going to launch new products this analysis is the clear eye for the company where they have to go and what they have to do (tutor2u,2010 online) Market Penetration Market penetration is the name given to a growth strategy where the business focuses and going to more marketing on selling existing products into existing markets. Market penetration seeks to achieve four main objectives: Maintain or increase the market share of current products this can be achieved by a combination of competitive pricing strategies, advertising, sales promotion and perhaps more resources dedicated to personal selling Secure dominance of growth markets Restructure a mature market by driving out competitors; this would require a much more aggressive promotional campaign, supported by a pricing strategy designed to make the market unattractive for competitors Increase usage by existing customers for example by introducing loyalty schemes A market penetration marketing strategy is very much about business as usual. The business is focusing on markets and products it knows well. It is likely to have good information on competitors and on customer needs. It is unlikely, therefore, that this strategy will require much investment in new market research. Market development Market development is the name given to a growth strategy where the business seeks to sell its existing products into new markets. There are many possible ways of approaching this strategy, including: New geographical markets; for example exporting the product to a new country New product dimensions or packaging New distribution channels Different pricing policies to attract different customers or create new market segments These are the tools to analysis the strategies before to get start the marketing, with out the strategies analysis it is like we are traveling on the road with closed eyes. After this checklist, you will find out the path which path you can adopt and where from you can get start. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Secondary data: The possibility of reanalyzing data that have already been collected for some other purpose it is called secondary data. Secondary data include both raw data and published summaries. Secondary data will probably provide the main source to answer your research question and to address your objectives. This data should be already analysis and recommended for the publish. So the secondary data will help to make your primary data to make your research meaningful and achieved. Primary data: Primary data is the data which is collected by the researcher directly from his own observations and experiences. For example, if the researcher conducts a survey for the collected of data then it is known as primary data. Primary data are those data which are collected for the first time, taking a sample, representing a population. It is not a published data, it is problem specific data collected by the researcher, first time. Methods or Ways of primary data collection: There are some methods to collect the primary data which is most important data in the research because the researcher only the one who is going to know what he/she will found against of their objectives. The primary data is just like new innovation or uncompelled information which should be helpful to meet your objectives. Now we are going to discuss the methods. Questionnaires Interviews Focus group interviews Observation Case-studies Diaries Critical incidents Portfolios. Questionnaires: Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced. In the questionnaires method there are some more types of the questionnaire that would be helpful to understand the researchers objectives. Interviews: Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for peoples attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some other agreed location. (Sounders, 2010) This is the 2nd method to get the information and data from your interviewee and researcher can find the perfect and exact information about their research. There are different types of the interviews which can be conduct. Semi- Structured Interviews: In this type of the interview the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covers, although these may vary from interview to interview. The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation. On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations. The nature of the questions and the ensuring discussion mean that data will be recorded by note taking.(Sounders,2010) Unstructured or In-Depth Interviews: We can use these to explore in depth general areas in which I am interested. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspect that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behavior and beliefs in relation to the topic area. (Sounders, 2010) Focus group interviews: A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market talk about specific issues of interest. Observation: Observation is a somewhat neglected aspect of research. Observation is adding considerably to the richness of your research data. it can even be fun. If my research questions and objectives are concerned with what people do, an obvious way in which to discover this is to watch them do it. Types of Observation: Participant observation Structured observation Participant observation is qualitative and derives from the work of social anthropology early in the twentieth century. Its emphasis is on discovering the meaning that people attach to their action. This is where the researcher attempts to participate in the lives and activities of subjects and thus becomes a member of their group, organization or community. Structures observation is quantitative and is more concerned with the frequency of those actions. DATA ANALYSIS Analyzing qualitative data: Qualitative e data consist of words and observation, not numbers. As with all data, analysis and interpretation are required to bring order and understanding. This requires creativity, discipline and a systematic approach. These are no single or best way. The process will depend on: The questions you want to answer, The need of those who will use the information , and Your resources Narrative data: Test or narrative data come in many forms and from a variety of sources. You might have brief responses to open-ended question on a survey, the transcript from an interview, or the text of a published report. Your data may come from many people, a few individuals, or a single case. Any of the following may produce narrative data that require analysis Open-ended questions and written comments on questionnaires may generate single word Individual interviews can produce data in the form of notes. Discussion group or focus group interview often involve full transcripts and notes from observer. Observation might be recorded in your field notes as a result of watching and listening. Documents, reports and news articles or any published written material may serve as evaluation data. The analysis process: When we got the data what do i do? The steps are describing which will explain the narrative data analysis and interpretation. Get to know the data: The qualitative analysis, this mean i have to read and re-read the test. If i got any idea i have to write it down may be useful later. When we got the data it dose not mean those are the quality data. Sometimes information provides does not add meaning or value and may be collected in a biased way. Focus the analysis: Review the purpose of the evaluation and what you want to find out. Identify a few key questions that you want your analysis to answers. Write these down and these will help me decide how to begin. These questions may change as you work with the data, will help me get started Categorize information: Some people refer to categorizing information as coding the data or indexing the data. However, categorizing does not involve assigning numerical codes as you do in quantitative analysis where you label exclusive variables with preset codes or values. Identify patterns and connections within and between categories: As you organize the data into categorize either by any way we will begin to see patterns and connections both within and between the categories. Assessing the relative importance of different themes or highlighting subtle variations may be important to your analysis. Interpretation bringing it all together: Interpreting the data attaching meaning and significance to the analysis. A good place to start is to develop a list of key points or important finding you discovered as a result of categorizing and sorting your data. For the researcher this is the main caring point where they have to analyse the data what they collected because they are going to publish a report or making the dissertation they need the solid and realistic data from their primary and secondary data collection. Collecting the data and analyse for the right and authentic data. They have to go through the entire analysis step for their qualitative data. Analysing quantitative data Statistic analysis could be involved to analyse the quantitative data. There are some common mathematical techniques that can be make the evaluation data to more understandable, this called the descriptive statistic because they help to describe the raw data. And these methods includes. Numerical counting. Percentages. Measures of central tendency. Measures of variability. There are some steps which are using in analysis of quantitative data. State your research questions in a clear, precise way.   If your main question(s) imply other questions, state these as sub-questions. Determine what kinds of comparisons you need to make in order to answer your questions. What variables do you need to measure? Are you interested in differences between groups?   Correlations between variables?    This step will often help to clarify the research question! Decide how to assess each variable, and verify what kind of variable it is. This will help you decide what kind of comparisons you will want to make. Set up blank tables. Devise a research method and gather your data. Summarize your data in such a way that you can fill in the blanks in your tables. (Analyze your data.) Interpret your data:   What is the answer to each of your questions?   What kind of argument will you make? Make your argument. In my research there is not too much data which I have to analyze to quantitatively, because I am writing the report about the marketing strategies, I am not doing the financial analysis or making the report of the ASDA finance report. Where ever I need it I will be analyze it then I will use that. Research presentation Presenting the research: The last step in market research is the presentation of a formal plan. At this stage, the marketing researcher should summarize the plan in a written proposal to management. A written proposal is especially important when the research project will be large and complex or when an outside concerned concern it out. The proposal should cover the company problems addressed and the research objectives, the information to be obtained, the sources of secondary information or methods for collecting primary data, and the ways the results will help for company decision making for the implementation. A written research plan or proposal makes sure that the marketing manager and researchers have consider all the important aspect of the research and that they agree on why and how the research will be done. Recommendation: The best way to find out the ways or methods to collect the perfection in primary data. Because I am searching some thing better, perfect and solid for my research topic and the primary data is first time collected from the researcher. And I have to find out the best tools for the marketing which is affected for the company for best marketing. If we follow the all primary data collection method we can get the knowledgeable and soled data for our research. I describe the objectives of the ASDA stores which I have to search out will be credible for my research. And the analysis of the data is very important because we can get the data from every where and any kind of the data. But to get the realized and perfect we have to analysis first and apply all the methods. Conclusion: For my research I will be looking into the strategy that ASDA, one of Britains leading supermarkets has adopted. Writing clear objectives is the most important step in designing qualitative marketing research. I am very intrigued as to how customers are being drawn in to the Asda brand and why it has been known for some of the most memorable advertising campaigns. After carrying out this research I will have an extensive knowledge about marketing strategies, and how they work. I will be gathering together data (which need to be collected) and then I will analyze it. This will allow me to implement the data and answer my objectives.

Apportionment Essay

Methods of apportionment are mathematical techniques used to allocate resources such as police officers in a certain city or congressional seats. These techniques are quite complicated and are based on several variables depending on which method one is choosing to use. Two of the most famous methods for solving apportionment problems are known as The Hamilton Method and The Huntington-Hill Principle. In this paper we will start by discussion the Hamilton Method by pretending that 10 different states are to be assigned 100 congressional seats by using apportionment. The Hamilton Method of Apportionment The Hamilton Method is a â€Å"common sense† method that Alexander Hamilton used to apportion the very first United States congress. With that being said, one could pretend that they have to divide or apportion 100 congressional seats among 10 states of the Union. To do this using The Hamilton Method the population for each of the 10 states would have to be known. Then the population for all 10 states would need to be totaled. Once this total is received, then the total population will need to be divided into each individual states population. For example, state 1 has a population of 1500 and state 2 has a population of 2000 for a population total of 3500 (Pirnot, n.d.). 1500/3500 = 0.42857143 (state 1) 2000/3500 = 0.57142857 (state 2) Next the decimal places in the numbers above will need to be moved two places to the right and round to the nearest hundred if necessary. This should give the answers 42.86 for state 1 and 57.14 for state 2. These numbers are known as your Hamilton numbers. Now in The Hamilton Method the numbers before the  decimal are known as the Integers and they represent how many seats each state gets, and the decimal numbers are known as the fractional numbers determine who will get the remaining seats, if there are any. The remaining seats are given to the states that have the largest fractional numbers first and work their way down. Therefore, assuming there are a 100 seats to be apportioned, then 42 seats will go to state one and 57 seats will go to state 2. However, we must remember that there are 100 seats to apportion. 42+57 = 99, therefore there is 1 remaining seat to be apportioned. Since state 1 has a fractional part of .86 and state 2 has a fractional part of 14, state 1 receives th e extra seat because it has the larger fractional number (Pirnot, n.d.). Now let us get back to the original problem of 10 states apportioning 100 seats. Seeing how this is a rather large problem with large numbers one might want to use a calculator or spread sheet to determine how many seats are assigned to each start. By using a spread sheet one can see that the seats are assigned as followed: Population Hamilton Assign Additional State Insert Below % Representation Numbers Integer Part Fractional Part Members Manually The question now becomes, are these seats all apportioned fairly? To find out we need to know the â€Å"Average Constituency† of each state.† The Average Constituency measures the fairness of an apportionment (Pirnot, n.d. pg. 534).† To find the Average Constituency one would take the population of a state and divide it by the assigned seats, and the compare them to determine fairness. Giving an example from the calculations above, one can see that state 1 has a population of 15475 and state 2 has a population of 35644. State 1 has 3 assigned seats and state 2 has 7 (Pirnot, n.d.). 15457/3 = 5158 Constituents 35644/7 = 5092 Constituents In comparison, just by looking at the number of constituent verses the number of seats; one would assume that the states are not really represented fairly, because state one has more constituents and fewer representatives than state 2. Below is the average constituency of all 10 states in the given problem above (Pirnot, n.d.). Having these numbers to compare helps us get a better understanding of how poorly some state can be represented. One would like to think that having the same amount of constituents in each state would be the sure-fire answer to solving that problem, but according to (Pirnot, n.d., pg. 535), â€Å"it is usually not possible to achieve this ideal when making and actual apportionment.† Therefore we should at least try to make average constituencies as equal as possible. One can actually measure this by using what is called â€Å"Absolute Unfairness† (Pirnot, n.d.). Absolute Unfairness Absolute Unfairness is defined as being â€Å"the difference in average constituencies† (Pirnot, n.d). To find the absolute unfairness of two of the states given above, we should use this simple formula. (average constituencies of state A) – (average constituencies of state B) = Now to use this formula to see if any of the states in our problem has any absolute unfairness, we will pick states 3 and 2 to use as a comparison. (state 3) 5486 – (state 2) 5092 = 394 Absolute Unfairness One can now see that the absolute unfairness of constituencies between states 3 & 2 is 394. Therefore, according to absolute unfairness these two states are not equally represented. The constituencies would have to have been the same in both states in order for the states to be equally represented, and this is rarely the case. With that being said, absolute unfairness is not what one would want to use to measure the unfairness of two apportionments, because it really show the imbalance of an apportionment of two states. In other words, absolute unfairness might give some people the wrong conclusion about the imbalance. Meaning, just because there is a large absolute unfairness doe not predict a greater imbalance. In all actuality, the sized of the state needs to be taken into consideration as well, when measuring unfairness. For example, in a state with a larger amount of voters like Texas, if a politician loses by 100,000 to 1,500,000 votes, it is considered a close race, in a small town election where the votes tally as 100 to 30 then the difference is considered to be quite large. This is why it is important to measure the â€Å"relative unfairness† (Pirnot, n.d). Relative Unfairness â€Å"Relative unfairness considers the size of constituencies in a calculating absolute unfairness (Pirnot, n.d. pg. 356).† To calculate the relative unfairness of apportioned seats between two states one would use this formula. absolute unfairness of apportionment / smaller average constituency of the two states = So, using the two states were given to figure out the absolute unfairness we can say that 0.08 is the relative unfairness of the two states. 394 (absolute unfairness) / 5092 (state 2) = 0.07737628  (rounded to the nearest hundred) = 0.08 relative unfairness To get a comparison we will use two other states. State 1 has 5158 average constituencies, and state 4 has 5196 for a total of 38 absolute unfairness. Remember to subtract the state with the smallest amount of constituencies from the larger state’s constituencies to get the absolute unfairness. To find the relative unfairness, take the absolute unfairness and divide it by the state with the lowest constituency number which was state 1. 38/5158 = 0.007367197  (rounded to the nearest hundred) = 0.007 relative unfairness The relative unfairness of states 1 and 4 is 0.007. Therefore in comparison with states 2 and 3’s larger relative unfairness of 0.08, it tells us that there is more of an unfair apportionment for states 2 and 3 than the states of 1 and 4. In other words, when comparing relative unfairness the larger number in comparison means it’s apportioned more unfairly. However, due to the fact that all of these calculations were based on The Hamilton Method all of the information could possibly change if there were a sudden population change due to growth. This is called a population paradox (Pirnot, n.d.). Population Paradox A population paradox occurs when one state grows in population faster than the other, and the state with the faster growth loses a seat or representative to the other state (Pirnot, n.d.). For example, state 6 has a population of 85663 and state 8 has a population of 84311 for a total population of 169974. Now we want to assign these two states 100 seats of congress using The Hamilton Method. First take the total population and divide by 100 seats to get our standard divisor (Pirnot, n.d.). 169976/100 = 1699.74 (standard divisor) Now divide each state by 1699.74 to get your Hamilton Number. 85663/1699.74 = 50.4 (state 6) 84311/1699.74 = 49.6 (state 8) Hamilton Numbers Lower Quota (Integer) Fractional Part Assigned Seats state 6: 50.6 50 0.4 50 state 8: 49.6 49 0.6 50 = 100 seats (Notice that the total for the integer or lower quota is 99, so therefore there was one extra seat to assign and it went to the state with the highest fractional part which was state 8.) Now if we increase state 6’s population by 1000 and state 8’s population by 100 you will get a population paradox. To find out how this happens you will need to make the same calculations by using The Hamilton Methods, except you will need to increase the population of both states to get the new totals, integers, fractional parts, and assigned seats (Pirnot, n.d.). (state 6) 85663 + 1000 = 86663 (new population) (state 8) 84311 + 100 = 84411 (new population) 86663 + 84411 = 171074 (total population) 171074/100 = 1710.74 (standard divisor) 86663/ 1710.74 = 50.66 (Hamilton number) 84411 / 1710.74 = 49.34 (Hamilton number) Notice that the fractional part has changed for the two states Hamilton numbers. Therefore since state 6 now has the larger fractional part due to the population change it will take the extra seat from state 8 for a total of 100 seats. State 6 will have 51 and state 8 will have 49. To find out which state received the greatest amount of growth we simply divide the growth by the original population (Pirnot, n.d.). 1000/85663 = 1.16% (state 6) and 100/84311 (state 8) = 1.19% One can now see that this is a population paradox that occurs when using The Hamilton Method, because the state that had the most growth in population lost a seat to the state with the least of amount of growth due to how the fractional part of the Hamilton numbers changed. However, a population paradox is not the only paradox associated with The Hamilton Method. The Alabama Paradox has also shown its ugly face when using The Hamilton Method of apportionment (Pirnot, n.d.). Alabama Paradox In 1870, after the census, the Alabama paradox surfaced. This occurred when a house of 270 members increased to 280 members of the House of Representatives causing Rhode Island to lose one of its 2 seats. Later on after the census a man by the name of C.W. Seaton calculated the  apportionments for all House sizes that ranged from 275 to 350 members. According to (ua.edu, n.d.), â€Å"He then wrote a letter to Congress pointing out that if the House of Representatives had 299 seats, Alabama would get 8 seats but if the House of Representatives had 300 seats, Alabama would only get 7 seats.† This became known as the Alabama paradox. It is simply when the total number of seats to be apportioned increases, and in turn causes a state to lose a seat. There is a method called the Huntington-Hill Principle that helps avoid the Alabama paradox. This method only apportions the new seats when the House of Representatives increases in size. This is what avoids the Alabama paradox. To ap ply the Huntington-Hill Principle we would use this simple algebraic formula below for each of the states for comparison that are in question of gaining the extra seat (Pirnot, n.d.). (population of y)^2 / y * (y + 1) Let us say that Y has a population of 400 and let Y equal 5, and let’s say that X has a population of 300 and let X equal 2. Now let us see which one of these gets the extra seat. (400)^2 / 5 * (5 + 1) and (300)^2 / 2 * (2 + 1) 160,000 / 5 * 6 = 90,000 / 2 * 3 = = 160,000 / 30 = 90,000 / 6 = 5333.33 = 15,000 By using the Huntington-Hill Principle method of apportionment we can now compare the two states to see which one will get the extra seat. Notice that state X with the Huntington -Hill number of 15,000 is great than that of state Y, therefore state X should get the extra seat. With this being said, if I were to use apportionment as my way of assigning seats to the House of Representatives, I would definitely choose to use The Huntington-Hill Principle method of apportionment (Pirnot, n.d.). Apportionment is a great way to achieve fair representation as long as we are not using the Hamilton Method. The Hamilton Method has the possibility of cause three types of paradoxes: the Alabama paradox, the population paradox, and the new states paradox. Even though the Hamilton Method does not violate the quota rule, avoiding these paradoxes are more important when  trying to give equal representation to each state of the Union. There are other apportionment methods that are equally as great as The Huntington-Hill Principle, such as Webster’s method (Pirnot, n.d.). Webster’s Method of apportionment What really sets Webster’s method apart from Huntington-Hill is that Webster uses modified divisor instead of a standard divisor to calculate what is called a modified quota or Integer. A modified divisor is a divisor that is smaller than the standard divisor. A modified quota is a quota that is larger than the standard quota. One would basically pick a number smaller than the standard divisor and work their way down until they end up with one that will give them and modified quota. Once that quota or Integer is found then it will need to be rounded either up or down depending on the number (the standard way of rounding) to determine who will get the allotted seats. Webster’s method is actually exactly like Huntington-Hill except for the rounding part, and it was the apportionment method used until it was replaced by Huntington-Hill (Pirnot, n.d.) Conclusion Apportionment methods are a great way to equally divide certain numbers of substances among varying numbers, as long as one stays away from the Hamilton Method. Sure the Hamilton Method is quite simple to use, but causes many problems such as paradoxes. The Alabama paradox, the population paradox, and the new state paradox are among the ones that the Hamilton Method can cause. This causes states to lose seats due to new Representatives, new population growth and even a new border or state joining the Union. Thankfully there were some people out there that were smart enough to come up with new methods of apportionment that eliminated the issues of the paradoxes, such as the Huntington-Hill method and Webster’s method. Both of these methods are the best apportionment methods out there to help make sure that states are represented equally by congress. , and considering the fact that I live in a very poor, poverty stricken state, I want to make sure that our state gets the best re presentation possible, so that maybe our representatives will be able to listen to all of their constituents and do something to help boost our economy, increase employment rates, and bring people out of poverty. References Apportionment Paradoxes. Alabama Paradox. Retreived from http://www.ctl.ua.edu/math103/apportionment/paradoxs.htm#Illustrating the Alabama Paradox Pirnot, T. Mathematics All Around, Fourth Addition. Apportionment. Retrieved from http://media.pearsoncmg.com/aw/aw_pirnot_mathallaround_4/ebook/pma04_flash_main.html?chapter=null&page=531&anchory=null&pstart=null&pend=null

Politics in Europe Essay

The move in the direction of higher levels of European integration over the years has concerned the changing of powers over a number of important public policy sectors from member state governments to the European institutions. Advancement towards higher levels of policy integration has been difficult and slow in some areas. After 1990, German objectives and actions were altered detectably and legitimately in two EC/ EU policy areas, the structural funds and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). New government positions in Brussels, which began with adjustments to federal policies, came about in response to the profoundly novel regional and agricultural challenges thrown up by unification and its aftermath. In each case, the eastern Land governments were at the forefront of pressure for changes in federal policy, and were able to utilize the access and information granted them under formal policymaking arrangements at the national and supranational levels to good effect (Loehnis and de la Dehesa, 83). In others it developed more quickly and completely because of the temperament of agreements hit when the Communities were forged and because of the interests of powerful member states. The establishment of the ECSC and the successful policy integration in these industrial sectors so vital for the economies of the 1950s resulted from a coincidence of member state interests and skillful institution building.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The organization of the Euratom and the EEC in 1958 led to further projects for common decision making. Central to the goal of forging an ever closer union among the people of Europe was the idea of an enmeshing of member state economies, in large part through the instrumentality of trade (Clout, 16). Thus came about the establishment of a customs union for intra-EEC trade in all industrial goods. This feature of the nascent Community was evidently of benefit to West Germany. With reverence to underlying, the organization of the EEC was one connecting the two most powerful founding member states, France and West Germany, whereby France, because of her large, and, in the European context, comparatively efficient agricultural sector, was accorded a general agricultural policy in return for the creation of a customs union for trade in all goods that was in the interest of the FRG, the budding Community’s most efficient industrial economy. Indeed, it became normal to refer to the European enterprise as a customs union with an agricultural guiding principle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) replaced member states’ farm policies. Implemented to increase efficiency and productivity in the agricultural sector, to help bring about stable food prices, and to provide a secure supply of high quality foodstuff for the Community citizens, another objective, the maintenance of a fair standard of living for those gaining their livelihood in the industry, became preeminent. Agricultural goods are traded freely within the Community and policy decisions, including those on agricultural prices, are made in Brussels. The CAP consists of a structural fund that is intended to support financially modernization of agriculture. To realize the CAPS main objective and thus to maintain prices at levels that result in acceptable incomes for member state farmers, a levy is placed on agricultural imports form third countries. Locally, agricultural supplies are â€Å"purchased into intervention† once their price falls under a certain level. Because of the tendency for protectionist practices to lead to increased production, the CAP has often in the past led to huge oversupplies of such commodities as grains, meat, milk products, and wine, which have been bought up and stored at great cost so as not to depress prices. Exports of these high priced commodities are subsidized, again at great expense. These export subsidies have guided EU’s trading partners to accuse Europe of dumping these commodities and have even been the cause of major trade disputes with them over the years. The cost of the CAP reached 70 percent of the Community’s budget at times in the past. In recent years, measures have been implemented to reduce production of commodities in surplus supply, with the result that farm expenditures will gradually decline, and the EU’s trade officials have been able to convince her trade partners that decreased production will gradually lead to a less prominent role for EU farm products on international markets (Harris et al., 325).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Germany’s interests, on the whole, have not been well served by the CAP. Internationally, she is interested in peaceful economic relations in her role as one of the great trading nations of the world and the disruptions caused by disputes between the EC/EU and its trading partners over agricultural trade have not provided her well. As a highly industrialized country with a small agricultural sector and as a large net importer of foodstuffs, the high price European food policy is not in her national interest. Germany’s donations to the CAP amounted in 1993 to about 30 percent of total expenditures whereas receipts flowing to Germany amounted to only half that amount (Black, 323). And yet her agricultural ministers have often supported high prices in Brussels. This anomaly can be explained not so much by German government’s generally pro-integration attitude (although German governments know that a price has to be paid for European cooperation) as it can by domestic politics. Despite the small number of farmers, the agricultural sector is highly organized and dominant politically. In addition to this, public opinion is likely to be supportive of protecting the economic and social viability of rural areas and maintaining agricultural land in production. The CAP’s amplified importance on environmental concerns has helped to make it more pleasant to the ecologically cognizant German public.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unification has led to some extent increased importance of the CAP for Germany. Eastern Germany has in the past had excessively large agricultural sector, and the GDR had a large agricultural workforce of 800,000 as well as two times as much farm land per capita as West Germany. Because of its low productivity, GDR agriculture was extremely supported financially. It was severely challenged by the transition to the market economy after unification, and by 1994 the agricultural workforce in the five new LaÈnder had been reduced to 224,000. CAP funds contributed importantly in the adjustment to more efficient production and laying fallow of some 17 percent of farmland there. But even with the added CAP funds flowing to her as a result of the disproportionately large agricultural sector in the new LaÈnder, Germany still supply in a major way to the Community’s agricultural funds or treasury (Karcz, 227).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With the ongoing rationalization in a sector that has lost 3.2 million jobs. And this took place in the years from 1960 to 1992, and in which a farmer who could generate enough harvest for ten people in 1950 can now provide for 80, political clout of farmers is in unremitting decline. Such rationalization is taking place apace at the European level, and the forces of free trade and globalization at the broader international level will ensure that one of the most prominent EU policies will reduce in significance as the Union is forced to adjust its very expensive and relatively inefficient subsidization policies (Dent, 162). With its decline in importance, the CAP will be less of a drain on German finances, but it will become controversial again if the Union decides to permit the attainment of Central and East European states such as Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, all countries in which inefficient agriculture employs a much greater fraction of the workforce than the EU average, and where implementation of the CAP would be hugely expensive. Germany, positively in the direction of eastward development of the EU would then give a high percentage of the ensuing costs. For this reason, Germany’s outlook in the direction of the CAP is expected to be critical in this significant judgment or decision also.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both the European Community and its member governments administer programs designed to achieve a spatially balanced pattern of economic development. Typically, these programs designate assisted areas within which applicants are eligible for capital grants, soft loans, accelerated depreciation allowances, and tax concessions for business, as well as job training for workers and infrastructure grants to municipalities. There existed three main programs at the European level prior to Maastricht, which together constituted the EC structural funds: the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the European Social Fund (ESF), and the Guidance Section of the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) (Adams, 101). In West Germany, federal regional policy tackled two types of problem region: underdeveloped rural areas, and areas vulnerable to or suffering from the decline of a dominant industry. Administratively, the program was accomplished as a â€Å"joint task,† or â€Å"Gemeinschaftsaufgabe† (GA), in which official conferences among Land and federal representatives created annual framework strategies that set funding levels, designated assisted areas across the country, and instituted assistance rates. The LaÈnder were accountable for program execution and management. The designation of assisted areas followed from clearly defined decision rules and multiple statistical indicators. Certain regions were eligible a priori for assistance, that is, they were not requisite to meet the criteria via the indicators. Incorporated in this particular category, but assisted out of their own individual programs, were the zonal border areas (Zonenrandgebiete), a twenty-five-mile-wide narrow piece down the boundaries with Czechoslovakia and the GDR, and West Berlin. These regions, underprivileged by the postwar division of Germany, enjoyed the highest assistance rates. Prior to 1979, Germany, like other member states, received its EC structural fund allocations in the form of a fixed national quota negotiated in the Council of Ministers. Between 1975 and 1979, Germany garnered 8.4 percent of European Regional Development Fund allocations, and posted the second lowest per capita share of regional fund expenditure for its assisted areas: ECU8.6 per capita, as compared to the Community average of 27.2. These modest sums colored the position adopted by the Germans in Brussels. Germany blocked a Commission initiative in the early 1970s to establish a much larger regional fund, and thereafter remained wary of proposals to increase spending on the structural funds. That said, Bonn consistently endorsed efforts to improve the effectiveness of grants and to concentrate resources on the neediest regions in the Community. Reform of the structural funds commenced in 1979, and gained momentum throughout the 1980s as concern about the regional impact of a barrier-free internal market grew. 5 The structural funds budget expanded, approaching one-quarter of total EC annual outlays, and programs were oriented to Community-wide objectives and criteria set largely by the Commission, which also gained the capacity to interact directly with regional and sub-regional actors, on occasion bypassing the national governments. To improve the targeting of assistance, the Commission in 1988 recognized five main concerns: (1) Promoting the development and structural adjustment of lagging regions, defined as those in which per capita GDP is 75 percent or less of the Community average. These regions were to receive up to 80 percent of structural fund allocations; (2) converting regions seriously affected by industrial decline; (3) combating long-term unemployment; (4) facilitating the occupational integration of young people; (5a) promoting the adaptation of agricultural production, and (5b) promoting the development of rural areas (Leibfried and Pierson, 144). The Commission was authorized to draw up its own list of assisted areas, which did not extend beyond completely with those recognized in national regional programs. For the period 1989 to 1993, the Objective 1 regions include 21 percent of the EC population, and were located on the western and southern border of the Community. Objective 2 and Objective 5b regions contained 16 and 5 percent of the EC’s population respectively (Hannequart, 74). Until unification, the Federal Republic continued to receive modest amounts from the structural funds. Between 1979 and 1989, Germany’s share of ERDF commitments fell from 6.2 percent to 3.9 percent. As the wealthiest Community member, it had no Objective 1 regions, and a scattering of Objective 2 and 5b regions in all but one of the eleven LaÈnder. Moreover, in the 1980s, Germany became the target of sustained efforts by the Commission’s DG-IV to limit the area coverage of federal and state regional programs as well as their assistance rates. The pressures of EC competition policy produced results; in 1988, Bonn agreed to reduce the percentage of the population covered by federal and state assisted areas from 45 percent to 39 percent; a further reduction to a figure below 30 percent was scheduled for 1991 (Berg et al., 213). Bonn officials bridled at the Commission’s interventions, in disagreement that DG-IV’s actions impeded or got in the way with their legal responsibilities under Article 72 of the Basic Law to secure an equal opportunity of living standards within Germany. They also passed judgment on the EC competition authorities for undermining the delicate conciliations accomplished in the GA between rural and industrial LaÈnder. On the other hand, federal officials utilized the Commission as a welcome scapegoat in their efforts or endeavor to push expenditure cuts and decrease in area coverage through the GA in response to tapering federal budget limitations in the 1980s. At the European level, the structural resources established to be one of the more controversial substances to surface in deliberations connecting Bonn and Brussels (Hooghe, 171). Works Cited Adams, William James. Singular Europe: Economy and Polity of the European Community University of Michigan Press, 1992. Berg, Leo van den, Erik Braun, and J. van der Meer. National Urban Policies in the European Union. Ashgate, 2007. Black, Stanley W. Europe’s Economy Looks East: Implications for Germany and the European Union. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Clout, Hugh D. Western Europe. Longman, 1986. Dent, Christopher. The European Economy. Routledge, 1997. Hannequart, Achille. Economic and Social Cohesion in Europe: A New Objective for Integration. Routledge, 1992. Harris, Simon, Alan Swinbank, and Guy Wikinson. The Food and Farm Policies of the European Community. Wiley, 1983. Hooghe, Liesbet. Cohesion Policy and European Integration: Building Multi-Level Governance. Oxford University Press, 1996. Karcz, Jerzy F. Soviet and East European Agriculture. USA: University of California Press, 1967. Leibfried, Stephan, and Paul Pierson. European Social Policy: Between Fragmentation and Integration. Brookings Institution Press, 1995. Loehnis, Anthony, and Guillermo de la Dehesa. Flexible Integration: Towards a More Effective and Democratic Europe. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research, 1995.   

Financial Crisis And Its Effects On Businesses,...

Introduction The worldwide impact of the recent financial crisis outlines the importance of having a decent understanding of crises. Latest episode has definitely showed that status of economic as well as the financial performance is greatly affected by financial turmoil. During the crisis, world stock markets have been collapsed, largest financial institutions have been bought out or fallen, and the wealthiest nations like UAE, UK of USA had to stand up and aid their financial systems as well as the economic ones. World economic activity was a common topic in the newspapers for many years after it has occurred. â€Å"The present financial crisis is a culmination of many systematic factors. The economic crisis has made us to believe that world†¦show more content†¦It was a global bank which massively effected world financial status. It was the worst world recession in all economies in last 80 years. Even today in many wealthy countries GDP is below its pre-crisis positions, especially i n EU (Europe) where it has evolved in the famous â€Å"Euro-crisis† (Economist, 2013). Not only EU and USA but the whole world was affected. Inflation started to be the serious problem, due to the high volume of printed money which had to help to bail the banks. This leaded to devaluated US dollar which has created inflation as such. People who have suffered the most are taxpayers in the USA. This made the distance between social classes larger and larger. According to (Malpass, 2010) one the main reasons that caused the crisis is a Housing Market in US. Between 1997 and 2006, average house price has increased by 122%. In the end of 2001, national home price average median was ranged from 2.6 to 3.2 times median income per household. Proportional ration has grown to 4.0 in the beginning of 2004 and 4.6 in 2006. This has resulted to housing bubble â€Å"A run-up in housing prices fueled by demand, speculation and the belief that recent history is an infallible forecast of the future.† (Investopedia, 2014). Many householders started to refinance their estates at lower interest rate, or even taking second mortgages. In the middle of 2008, housing prices had been declined by 20% comparing to their 2006 peak. Easy loans and trend of house